On the morning of 28 September 1066 Duke William of Normandy’s invasion fleet arrived off the Sussex coast, and disembarked at Pevensey. How did he achieve the remarkable logistical feat of raising an army and transporting it across the English Channel?
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From Normandy to Hastings: The Norman Invasion of England
On the morning of 28 September 1066 Duke William of Normandy’s invasion fleet arrived off the Sussex coast, and disembarked at Pevensey. This was the culmination of months of planning and preparation, during which William had summoned the resources of his people and persuaded thousands of them to follow him in his great endeavour to win the English crown.
How did William achieve the remarkable logistical feat of raising an army and transporting it across the dangerous waters of the English Channel?
The scene in the Bayeux Tapestry depicting Harold (right) swearing an oath on holy relics to Duke William (left). The Tapestry gives no details of the oath, but Norman sources say that Harold swore to support William’s claim to the English throne. (Detail of the official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry – 11th century)
Duke William’s cause
William of Normandy learnt that
Harold Godwineson had been crowned king of England in January 1066, on the death of King Edward the Confessor. William was convinced that he himself was Edward’s rightful heir, and outraged at the apparent treachery of Harold, who he declared had sworn to support his claim.
He was determined to confront Harold and win his crown through conquest. To do so, however, he would need the support of his leading magnates and their men.
In the spring of 1066 William called his Norman vassals together to present his cause and consult them on his invasion plans.
Duke William (left of centre) in council with his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux. After hearing the news of Harold’s coronation, he is ordering ships to be built for the invasion fleet. (Detail of the official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry – 11th century)
Persuasion and bribery
At first, the response was mixed. Some leading figures responded warmly, committing themselves and their knights to follow William. Others warned that the invasion would be arduous and beyond the resources of the Norman duchy. Some were concerned about both the dangers of a sea crossing and the huge numbers of English they could expect to fight. Others even questioned whether they owed William service overseas.
But William eventually won their support. We are told that he appealed to their loyalty. And the duke’s cause gained legitimacy when news came that the pope gave it his backing.
No doubt some were eager to demonstrate their allegiance to William. But more worldly motives were at play too. According to one chronicler, among William’s army were men ‘panting for the spoils of England’. Where principle was lacking, the opportunity for wealth and fortune was inducement enough.
These three scenes from the Bayeux Tapestry show preparations for the invasion under way. In the top scene, woodsmen and carpenters cut down trees and shape the wood into planks. Below, carpenters build the ships; and in the bottom scene, men carry arms and armour towards their ships while others haul a large barrel of wine. (Detail of the official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry – 11th century)
Preparing for invasion
The task of preparing an invasion force was formidable. William would have to summon an army, provision its men and horses, and prepare a fleet to transport them across the sea.
As news of William’s enterprise spread, men came from Normandy, Brittany, Poitou, Burgundy and other parts of modern France. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the preparations made during the summer of 1066 – barrels of wine being transported on wagons, and men carrying mail hauberks (body-length armour), spears and swords towards the invasion fleet.
The Bayeux Tapestry also shows men felling trees and building ships. William had ordered his vassals to provide ships, each according to his means. Their response is revealed by a document now known as the Ship List, which records the number of ships provided by William’s magnates. Topping the list are William’s half-brothers – Robert, Count of Mortain, and Odo, Bishop of Bayeux – who provided 120 and 100 ships respectively.
The Ship List counts 776 ships, but William’s fleet was probably larger, since it omits both the duke’s ships and those of some lords with maritime estates. Separately, the List says that William had 1,000 ships in his fleet.
It is unlikely that all the ships were newly built, and far more probable that existing ships were requisitioned. The Bayeux Tapestry shows the ships as relatively small, shallow and clinker-built – with long tiers or runs of overlapping planking along the ships’ sides.
Archaeological evidence for boats in this period suggests these depictions are accurate for warships, but their uniformity is probably deceptive. The fleet amassed by William almost certainly included fishing and cargo vessels which, with their deeper draught, were more stable and better equipped to carry horses and heavy loads.
The Dives estuary today. Its size in 1066 – probably much larger than today – would have enabled William to gather and shelter hundreds of ships there© Andia/Alamy
Stormy weather
By the beginning of August William’s army and fleet had amassed at Dives-sur-Mer, at the wide mouth of the river Dives. Although we cannot be certain of the size of William’s army, there were probably around 8,000 fighting men and over 2,000 horses. Here they waited for a south wind to fill the ships’ sails and convey them across the English Channel.
Instead, for over a month, tempestuous winds blew from the west, bringing with them continuous rain and rough seas. It was a frustrating wait. But contemporary chroniclers applauded the fruits of William’s careful preparations: his men had enough provisions to ensure they did not ravage the surrounding countryside.
Directly north of William’s fleet, across the channel, lay the Solent – the strait that separates the Isle of Wight from mainland England – and the potential landing place of Portsmouth harbour. King Harold evidently thought this was William’s most likely landing place and had his fleet guarding it throughout the summer.
On 8 September Harold’s army guarding the coast disbanded and his fleet returned to London. Some historians suggest that William deliberately delayed his departure from Dives until Harold had stood down his forces. If this was the case, however, it is odd that the Norman chroniclers, so often keen to praise William’s military genius, only reported how the weather played against him.
An engraving of 1784 showing the Normans carrying St Valery’s body in procession from the church at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. (Source: Wellcome Collection)
An abortive launch
In any event, when he eventually set sail, William’s departure almost turned into a disaster.
In the second week of September William attempted to launch his ships from Dives-sur-Mer. But as the fleet left the haven of the river and entered the English Channel, it was beset by west winds and blown a hundred miles east along the treacherous Normandy coast.
The fleet suffered terrible shipwrecks before ending up at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme, in the neighbouring county of Ponthieu. William had to resort to secretly burying the dead to avoid undermining morale.
William spent two weeks at Saint-Valery, frequently praying at the shrine of the saint who gave the town its name. In desperation, he arranged for the saint’s body to be carried from the church in procession, in the hope that St Valery would intercede on his behalf and that God would change the winds.
William’s prayers were answered at the end of the month. Contemporaries would have seen the providential turning of the wind as a sign of God’s favour for the Norman expedition. On 27 September William’s fleet set sail for England.
The device on the masthead of this ship, possibly a papal banner or a lantern, suggests that it is probably the Mora, the ship paid for by Duke William’s wife, Matilda. Although the Ship List tells us the Mora had a carved figurehead on its prow, here the figurehead is on the stern. (Detail of the official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry – 11th century)
Crossing the channel
With the arrival of a southerly wind, men and horses embarked onto their ships. At sunset on 27 September, trumpets summoned William’s vessels to meet the rising tide and begin the channel crossing.
Sailing through the night carried the risk that ships might inadvertently break away from the group and be lost, so lit lanterns were placed on masts so that the fleet stayed together. One early account of the invasion described how the glow of torches filled the ocean just as stars fill the heavens.
The Ship List tells us that William’s ship was called the
Mora, and was a gift from his wife,
Matilda. On its prow was a carved figurehead depicting a golden child, its right hand pointing towards England and its left holding a horn to its lips. Such a figurehead appears on one of the ships depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry.
The Bayeux Tapestry depicts horses sitting calmly in shallow-draughted ships. In reality the horses may have been conveyed in cargo ships with deeper holds. (Detail of the official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry – 11th century)
The 91-mile crossing could be expected to take about 12 hours. Early chroniclers record that William ordered the fleet to weigh anchor on reaching the open sea, to ensure an orderly arrival in England during daylight hours. Some hours later, a trumpet call and a fire signal from William’s mast ordered the fleet onwards, to follow in his wake.
The accounts of the invasion credit William with the successful management of his fleet, but it was the captains and helmsmen on the ships who secured a safe crossing. Their experience and skill – especially when sailing at night in the absence of navigational landmarks – were critical.
We know that the
Mora’s captain was called Stephen, that he continued to captain William’s ships in his subsequent crossings of the English Channel, and that William rewarded him with property in England.
Arrival at Pevensey
About three hours after dawn on 28 September, William’s fleet arrived at Pevensey Bay on the Sussex coast. Here, a wide tidal estuary formed a natural harbour which, together with smaller inlets to the east, provided haven for the ships. William’s disembarkation was unopposed – King Harold was far away in York, celebrating his
victory three days before over Harald Hardrada, King of Norway.
Twelfth-century accounts of the landing record a tradition that upon disembarking William tripped and fell, landing with his arms outstretched on the ground and cutting his nose. Some of the men around him considered this a bad omen. But William fitz Osbern, friend and leading vassal of the duke, had the wit to defuse the situation by declaring that William had already taken England in his hands and consecrated it as his inheritance with his blood.
A reconstruction drawing showing the Norman fleet landing at Pevensey Bay on the morning of 28 September 1066. The coastline is much changed since William landed, and at the time the sea would have come much closer to the fort walls (seen in the foreground) than it does today© Historic England (illustration by Peter Urmston)
The west gate of the Roman fort at Pevensey, where William may have built a ditch to guard the landward approach. The Roman fort walls provided shelter for William’s invading force. Beyond the gate, parts of the later medieval castle are visible
On the west side of Pevensey Bay was the settlement of Pevensey, largely located within the walls of a
former Roman shore fort. William’s men swiftly occupied it, presumably displacing the inhabitants.
Early accounts tell us that William built new fortifications at Pevensey. A century later the poet Wace would describe how William’s army had brought pre-cut timbers from Normandy, and that these were used to build the first castle at Pevensey, encircled with a ditch.
It seems more likely, however, that the initial fortification was more hastily improvised. At this stage it may have been limited to a large ditch cut across the landward approach to the fort’s west gate.
Read more about Pevensey Castle’s history
Immediately after landing, Norman scouts gallop away from their ships towards Hastings, in search of food for the invading army. (Detail of the official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry – 11th century)
Onward to Hastings
Having secured the west end of his beachhead, William turned his attention eastwards, quickly moving to the town and port of Hastings.
Although none of the accounts of the invasion describe his route, it seems more likely that he would have travelled by ship rather than taking the longer land route around the marshy Pevensey Bay.
At Hastings, William ordered the construction of a second castle. It was here that he made his base, while the Norman army ravaged the surrounding countryside, taking provisions and terrorising the local people.
Two weeks later William received word that King Harold was approaching with a large army.
William’s victory at the Battle of Hastings, fought 16 days after the landing at Pevensey, was testament to his extraordinary feat in raising, transporting and landing his vast invasion fleet.
By Roy Porter, Senior Curator of Properties, English Heritage
Bayeux Tapestry images courtesy City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017 – La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie
